Introduction
The Epistle to the Hebrews ends its eloquent introduction with the phrase, “so he became as much superior to the angels as the name he has inherited is superior to theirs” (Heb 1:4, NIV). If you are like me, you may have assumed that the inherited name υἱός (“Son”; 1:5, 13) establishes Jesus as the divine Son of God, the second member of the Trinity. However, the author uses several Old Testament texts to establish Jesus as the “Son”. A careful look at the Old Testament texts in their own contexts reveals that the author of Hebrews intends a different idea to what I originally thought. The Old Testament passages (Ps 2:7b; 2 Sam 7:14) establish Jesus as the promised Davidic king who will reign forever with all things under his feet (Heb 2:5–9; Ps 110:1). Thus, the author encourages his readers to fix their thoughts on Jesus, remembering that he is ruling and will rule as the promised Davidic king (Heb 3:1).
I would have failed to understand the author’s argument had I not implemented aspects of an intertextual study. Intertextuality is “the interplay of dialogue between one text used in a different context” (Osborne 2006, 331). Simply put, intertextuality is using the core message or borrowing words from one text and using it in another text. If you have ever read the New Testament and encountered an Old Testament quotation or idea you have encountered intertextuality. An intertextual study of the New Testament takes allusions to Old Testament texts seriously by examining their original contexts, comparing their textual forms, and placing an allusion within the interpretive practice of extra-biblical literature.[1] An intertextual study of an Old Testament allusion requires four steps which are outlined below so any student of Scripture can reap its benefits.
- Old Testament Context
The first step in an intertextual study is to analyze the Old Testament context. The goal is to understand the original use of the text (Osborne 2006, 332). The original usage should then control the meaning of the allusion or quote in its new context. For example, a background study of Psalm 2:7 and 2 Samuel 7:14 establishes the term “Son” as a title for the kingly line of David who will reign on earth as God’s representative. As C.H. Dodd (1952, 126) advocates, when New Testament authors used an Old Testament allusion, the whole Old Testament context formed the basis of their argument.
A first step is, therefore, to study an Old Testament allusion within its broader context, including the wider section that it is part of (called a pericope). As a guide, most Bible translations will mark the sections of a pericope with a bold heading. Although the New Testament writers likely used Greek Old Testament texts (referred to as the Septuagint or LXX), the Old Testament exegesis (interpretation) should use the Hebrew text as the primary analysis. Common Bible translations such as the ESV and the NIV use the Hebrew text in their English translation. Thus, a good starting point is to look at the Old Testament context in the English translation. The Hebrew text allows an assessment of further developments.
- Textual Comparison
The second step in an intertextual study is a textual comparison. The researcher compares the form of the allusion in the Old Testament context to the form in the New Testament context. If there are any changes in the presentation of the material, the reader is immediately aware. These changes often help identify the specific concerns of the New Testament author. A textual comparison asks the following questions (Osborne 2006, 332):
- Does the allusion represent the Hebrew text, the Greek text, or other Jewish sources (e.g., Targums, rabbinic readings?)
- Is the allusion a free rendering or a paraphrase?
- Does the allusion use extra-biblical tradition as well as the Old Testament texts?
- Extra-Biblical Literature
The third step in an intertextual study involves extra-biblical literature. This step inspects the alluded text in Jewish writings to understand how Jewish people in the time after the Temple was rebuild and before Jesus’s birth understood the passage. This often provides a critical clue for how the New Testament author employed the text.
Osborne (2006, 332) warns that scholars and Christians commonly read modern interpretations into Old Testament passages when they appear in the New Testament. Ascertaining how Judaism understood the Old Testament passage, illumines and confines the New Testament author’s use of an allusion. Depending on the chosen text, the researcher must identify relevant Jewish materials for analysis from the LXX, Targums, Qumran, pseudepigrapha, apocrypha, Josephus, Philo, and early rabbinic writings.
- New Testament Context
The fourth and final step in an intertextual study is to bring the gathered data to inform an interpretation of the Old Testament allusion in the New Testament context. The student of Scripture now takes the background knowledge and allows the broader Old Testament context to bear meaning on the text in its new context. From the example we began with, Hebrews 1:5–2:14 establishes Jesus not primarily in terms of his divine identity but his affinity with the promised Davidic king. Consequently, an exegesis of the New Testament notes the context in which the allusion is found, how the author is using the allusion, the influences of that use, and the theological implications of the allusion (Osborne 2006, 332).
Conclusion
In summary, an intertextual study of an allusion consists of four steps. The first step is a broad interpretation of the Old Testament context. The second step is a textual comparison of the form of the Old Testament text in its new context with the original form. The third step is an examination of how the alluded text was used in extra-biblical literature. The fourth step is an exegetical examination and reflection of the allusion in the New Testament context. By applying an intertextual study, Old Testament texts in New Testament contexts are illumined and confined to the purposes of their original authors. The methods described for an intertextual study can be employed when an Old Testament text is encountered in the New Testament for clarity of interpretation, understanding, and application.
Works Cited
Beetham, Christopher A. 2008. Echoes of Scripture in the Letter of Paul to the Colossians. Leiden: Brill.
Dodd, Charles H. 1952. According to Scripture: The Sub-Structure of New Testament Theology. London: Nisbet.
Hubbard, Robert L. 2014. “Reading Through the Rearview Mirror: Inner-Biblical Exegesis and the New Testament.” The Covenant Quarterly 72(3–4):125–139.
Leonard, Jeffery. 2016. “Inner-Biblical Interpretation and Intertextuality.” In Literary Approaches to the Bible, edited by Douglas Mangum and Douglas Estes, 97–141. Bellingham: Lexham Press.
Osborne, Grant R. 2006. The Hermeneutical Spiral: A Comprehensive Introduction to Biblical Interpretation. Downers Grove: IVP Academic.
Short Bio:
Sarah Churchill is nearing the end of her M.Th. (biblical studies) journey at SATS, in which she applied intertextuality to Paul’s allusion to Adam and Eve in 1 Timothy 2:12. She has recently joined the SATS staff as a part-time lecturer. Her passion is to see the gospel spread throughout the African continent and the world through theological education. Sarah was born in Canada and is now living in Cape Town, South Africa with her family.
[1] “The term allusion refers to the presence of an earlier text either in vocabulary, imagery, or structure in a later text for aesthetic, explanatory, or authoritative value (Beetham 2008, 20; Hubbard 2014, 127; Leonard 2016, 4, 128).
